Piece of Art Work Made From Steel Beams in the Shape of a U

Type of steel used in construction

Diverse structural steel shapes

Structural steel is a category of steel used for making construction materials in a variety of shapes. Many structural steel shapes have the form of an elongated axle having a profile of a specific cross department. Structural steel shapes, sizes, chemical composition, mechanical properties such as strengths, storage practices, etc., are regulated by standards in most industrialized countries.

Most structural steel shapes, such as I-beams, have high second moments of area, which means they are very stiff in respect to their cross-exclusive area and thus tin can back up a high load without excessive sagging.

Mutual structural shapes [edit]

The shapes available are described in many published standards worldwide, and a number of specialist and proprietary cross sections are also bachelor.

A steel I-beam, in this instance used to back up timber joists in a house.

I-beam (I-shaped cross-section - in U.k. these include Universal Beams (UB) and Universal Columns (UC); in Europe it includes the IPE, HE, HL, Hd and other sections; in the The states it includes Wide Flange (WF or W-Shape) and H sections)
Z-Shape (half a flange in opposite directions)
HSS-Shape (Hollow structural section also known as SHS (structural hollow department) and including square, rectangular, circular (piping) and elliptical cross sections)
Bending (L-shaped cross-department)
Structural channel, or C-beam, or C cross-section
Tee (T-shaped cantankerous-section)
Rail profile (asymmetrical I-beam)
- Railway rails
- Vignoles rail
- Flanged T track
- Grooved rail
Bar, a long piece with a rectangular cantankerous section, only not so broad so as to be chosen a sheet.
Rod, a circular or square section long compared to its width; come across also rebar and dowel.
Plate, metallic sheets thicker than 6 mm or 1⁄iv in.
Open spider web steel joist

While many sections are made by hot or cold rolling, others are made by welding together flat or bent plates (for example, the largest circular hollow sections are made from flat plate bent into a circle and seam-welded).^[1]

The terms bending iron, channel atomic number 26, and sheet iron accept been in common use since before wrought iron was replaced past steel for commercial purposes. They have lived on after the era of commercial wrought fe and are notwithstanding sometimes heard today, informally, in reference to steel angle stock, channel stock, and sheet, despite that they are misnomers (compare "tin foil", still sometimes used informally for aluminum foil). In formal writing for metalworking contexts, accurate terms like angle stock, channel stock, and sail are used.

Standards [edit]

Standard structural steels (Europe) [edit]

Most steels used throughout Europe are specified to comply with the European standard EN 10025. However, many national standards too remain in strength.^{[ citation needed ]}

Typical grades are described as 'S275J2' or 'S355K2W'. In these examples, 'Due south' denotes structural rather than technology steel; 275 or 355 denotes the yield strength in newtons per square millimetre or the equivalent megapascals; J2 or K2 denotes the materials toughness past reference to Charpy impact exam values; and the 'W' denotes weathering steel. Further messages tin can be used to designate fine grain steel ('Northward' or 'NL'); quenched and tempered steel ('Q' or 'QL'); and thermomechanically rolled steel ('M' or 'ML').

i. S275JOH Specification S275JOH is steel grade in EN 10219 specification, EN 10210 standard. And the nearly widely used specification is EN10219 standard, which is Cold formed welded structural hollow sections of non-blend and fine grain steels.
EN10219-1 specifies the technical commitment weather condition for common cold formed welded structural hollow sections of circular, square or rectangular forms and applies to structural hollow sections formed cold without subsequent rut handling.
Requirements for S275JOH pipe tolerances, dimensions and sectional s275 pipage properties are contained in EN 10219-2.
two. S275JOH Steel Pipes industry Procedure
The steel manufacturing process shall be at the discretion of the steel producer. S275JOH carbon steel pipes can be made in ERW, SAW or seamless process. All S275JOH steel material and S275JOH pipes should conform to EN10219 standards. ^[2]

The normal yield strength grades available are 195, 235, 275, 355, 420, and 460, although some grades are more than commonly used than others due east.g. in the UK, almost all structural steel is grades S275 and S355. College grades are bachelor in quenched and tempered material (500, 550, 620, 690, 890 and 960 - although grades above 690 receive little if whatsoever apply in structure at present).

A set of Euronorms define the shape of a gear up of standard structural profiles:

European I-axle: IPE - Euronorm 19-57
European I-axle: IPN - DIN 1025-1
European flange beams: HE - Euronorm 53-62
European channels: UPN - DIN 1026-one
European cold formed IS IS 800-1

Standard structural steels (United states) [edit]

Steels used for building structure in the US utilize standard alloys identified and specified by ASTM International. These steels take an blend identification beginning with A and and so two, three, or four numbers. The 4-number AISI steel grades commonly used for mechanical engineering, machines, and vehicles are a completely different specification series.

The standard unremarkably used structural steels are;^[3]

Carbon steels [edit]

A36 - structural shapes and plate.
A53 - structural pipe and tubing.
A500 - structural pipe and tubing.
A501 - structural pipe and tubing.
A529 - structural shapes and plate.
A1085 - structural pipage and tubing.

High strength low alloy steels [edit]

A441 - structural shapes and plates - (Superseded by A572)
A572 - structural shapes and plates.
A618 - structural pipe and tubing.
A992 - Possible applications are West or S I-Beams.
A913 - Quenched and Self Tempered (QST) W shapes.
A270 - structural shapes and plates.

Corrosion resistant loftier strength low alloy steels [edit]

A243 - structural shapes and plates.
A588 - structural shapes and plates.

Quenched and tempered alloy steels [edit]

A514 - structural shapes and plates.
A517 - boilers and pressure vessels.
Eglin steel - Inexpensive aerospace and weaponry items.

Forged Steel [edit]

A668 - Steel Forgings

Non-preload commodities assembly (EN 15048)

Pre-load bolt assembly (EN 14399)

CE mark [edit]

The concept of CE marking for all construction products and steel products is introduced by the Construction Products Directive (CPD). The CPD is a European Directive that ensures the free move of all construction products within the European Union.

Considering steel components are "safety critical", CE Marking is non allowed unless the Mill Product Command (FPC) system nether which they are produced has been assessed past a suitable certification body that has been canonical to the European Committee.^[iv]

In the instance of steel products such as sections, bolts and fabricated steelwork the CE Marking demonstrates that the product complies with the relevant harmonized standard.^[5]

For steel structures the principal harmonized standards are:

Steel sections and plate - EN 10025-i
Hollow sections - EN 10219-1 and EN 10210-i
Pre-loadable bolts - EN 14399-one
Non-preloadable bolts - EN 15048-1
Fabricated steel - EN 1090 -1

The standard that covers CE Marking of structural steelwork is EN 1090-1. The standard has come into force in late 2010. Later a transition menstruum of 2 years, CE Marking will become mandatory in about European Countries sometime early in 2012.^[6] The official terminate appointment of the transition period is July 1, 2014.

Steel vs. concrete [edit]

Choosing the ideal structural material [edit]

Most construction projects require the use of hundreds of different materials. These range from the concrete of all different specifications, structural steel of different specifications, clay, mortar, ceramics, wood, etc. In terms of a load begetting structural frame, they volition more often than not consist of structural steel, concrete, masonry, and/or wood, using a suitable combination of each to produce an efficient structure. Most commercial and industrial structures are primarily synthetic using either structural steel or reinforced concrete. When designing a structure, an engineer must determine which, if not both, textile is near suitable for the design. In that location are many factors considered when choosing a construction material. Cost is commonly the controlling chemical element; withal, other considerations such every bit weight, force, constructability, availability, sustainability, and burn resistance volition be taken into account before a terminal conclusion is fabricated.

Cost - The toll of these construction materials will depend entirely on the geographical location of the project and the availability of the materials. Just equally the toll of gasoline fluctuates, and so do the prices of cement, aggregate, steel, etc. Reinforced concrete derives almost one-half of its construction costs from the required form-work. This refers to the lumber necessary to build the "box" or container in which the physical is poured and held until it cures. The expense of the forms makes precast concrete a popular option for designers due to the reduced costs and time.^[vii] Steel beingness sold past weight, the structural designer must specify the lightest members possible while maintaining a rubber structural design. Using many identical steel members rather than many unique ones besides reduces cost.^[8]
Strength/weight ratio - Structure materials are ordinarily categorized by their strength to weight ratio—or specific strength, which is the strength of a material divided by its density. These ratios signal how useful the cloth is for its weight, which in plough indicates its cost and ease of construction. Concrete is typically ten times stronger in compression than in tension, giving information technology a college forcefulness to weight ratio in compression.^[9]
Sustainability - Many construction companies and material vendors are becoming more environmentally friendly. Sustainability has become an entirely new consideration for materials that will be in the environment for generations. A sustainable material minimally affects the environment upon installation and throughout its life cycle. Reinforced concrete and structural steel can be sustainable if used properly. Over 80% of structural steel members are made from recycled metals, called A992 steel. This fellow member cloth is cheaper and has a college strength to weight ratio than previously used steel members (A36 course).^[x] Concrete's fabric components are naturally occurring materials that are non harmful to the environment, and concrete can now exist poured to exist permeable, letting h2o menstruum through a paved surface to reduce the demand for drainage or runoff infrastructure. Concrete can also be crushed and used as aggregate in future concrete applications, avoiding the country fill up.^[11]
Fire resistance - One of the virtually dangerous hazards to a building is a burn hazard. This is especially true in dry, windy climates and for structures constructed using wood. Special considerations must exist taken into business relationship with structural steel to ensure it is not under a unsafe fire run a risk condition. Reinforced concrete characteristically does not pose a threat in the event of a burn down and even resists the spreading of burn down, as well as temperature changes. This makes physical excellent insulation, improving the sustainability of the building it surrounds past reducing the required energy to maintain climate.^[9]
Corrosion - Some structural materials are susceptible to corrosion from such surrounding elements as water, heat, humidity, or common salt. Special precautions must be taken when installing a structural material to prevent information technology, and the occupants of the edifice must know of any accompanying maintenance requirements. For example, structural steel cannot be exposed to the environment because any wet, or another contact with h2o, will cause information technology to rust, compromising the structural integrity of the building and endangering occupants and neighbors.^[9]

Reinforced physical [edit]

Characteristics - Generally consisting of portland cement, h2o, construction aggregate (coarse and fine), and steel reinforcing bars (rebar), concrete is cheaper in comparing to structural steel.
Strength - Concrete is a blended material with relatively high compressive strength properties, but defective in tensile strength/ductility. This inherently makes concrete a useful material for carrying the weight of a structure. Concrete reinforced with steel rebar give the structure a stronger tensile capacity, likewise as an increase in ductility and elasticity.
Constructability - Reinforced physical must be poured and left to gear up, or harden. After setting (typically 1–ii days), a concrete must cure, the process in which concrete experiences a chemical reaction between the cementitious particles and the h2o. The curing process is complete after 28 days; nonetheless, construction may continue afterward 1–ii weeks, depending on the nature of the structure. Concrete can be constructed into nearly any shape and size. Approximately one-half of the cost of using reinforced physical in a structural project is attributed to the construction of the form-work. In club to salvage time, and therefore costs, structural concrete members may be pre-cast. This refers to a reinforced concrete beam, girder, or cavalcade being poured off site and left to cure. Subsequently the curing process, the concrete fellow member may be delivered to the construction site and installed every bit before long as it is needed. Since the physical member was cured off location beforehand, structure may continue immediately after erection.^[9]
Fire resistance - Concrete has excellent fire resistance backdrop, requiring no additional construction costs to adhere to the International Building Code (IBC) fire protection standards. However, physical buildings will still likely use other materials that are not burn down resistant. Therefore, a designer must even so take into account the use of the concrete and where it will require burn down hazardous materials in order to forbid futurity complications in the overall blueprint.
Corrosion - Reinforced concrete, when constructed properly, has excellent corrosion resistance properties. Physical is not only resistant to h2o, but needs information technology to cure and develop its forcefulness over time. Withal, the steel reinforcement in the physical must not exist exposed in order to prevent its corrosion as this could significantly reduce the ultimate strength of the structure. The American Physical Institute provides the necessary design specifications for an engineer to ensure there is enough concrete covering whatsoever steel reinforcement to prevent exposure to water. This cover altitude must be specified because concrete will inevitable crack at locations carrying tension, or locations containing reinforcing bars for the purpose of carrying said tension. If the concrete cracks, it provides a path for water to travel direct to the reinforcing confined.^[9] Some reinforcing bars are coated in epoxy as a second order measure of preventing corrosion due to h2o contact. This method induces higher costs on the overall project, however, due to the college cost of the epoxy coated confined. Too, when using epoxy coated confined, reinforced concrete members must be designed larger, as well as stronger, in order to balance the loss of friction between the reinforcing confined and concrete. This friction is referred to as bond force, and it is vital to the structural integrity of a concrete fellow member.^[seven]

Structural steel [edit]

Characteristics - Structural steel differs from physical in its attributed compressive strength as well as tensile force.^[9]
Strength - Having high forcefulness, stiffness, toughness, and ductile properties, structural steel is one of the nigh normally used materials in commercial and industrial building construction.^[12]
Constructability - Structural steel can be developed into almost any shape, which are either bolted or welded together in construction. Structural steel can be erected as soon as the materials are delivered on site, whereas concrete must exist cured at least one–2 weeks after pouring before construction tin can proceed, making steel a schedule-friendly construction material.^[ix]
Fire resistance - Steel is inherently a noncombustible material. Nonetheless, when heated to temperatures seen in a fire scenario, the forcefulness and stiffness of the material is significantly reduced. The International Building Code requires steel be enveloped in sufficient fire-resistant materials, increasing overall cost of steel structure buildings.^[12]
Corrosion - Steel, when in contact with h2o, can corrode, creating a potentially dangerous structure. Measures must exist taken in structural steel construction to preclude whatsoever lifetime corrosion. The steel tin exist painted, providing water resistance. Also, the burn resistance cloth used to envelope steel is commonly water resistant.^[nine]
Mold - Steel provides a less suitable surface surroundings for mold to grow than wood.^[13]

The tallest structures today (commonly called "skyscrapers" or high-rise) are constructed using structural steel due to its constructability, as well equally its high strength-to-weight ratio. In comparison, concrete, while beingness less dense than steel, has a much lower strength-to-weight ratio. This is due to the much larger volume required for a structural concrete fellow member to support the same load; steel, though denser, does not require as much material to behave a load. However, this advantage becomes insignificant for low-rise buildings, or those with several stories or less. Low-rise buildings distribute much smaller loads than high-rise structures, making concrete the economical choice. This is particularly truthful for simple structures, such as parking garages, or any building that is a simple, rectilinear shape.^[14]

Structural steel and reinforced concrete are not always chosen solely because they are the most ideal fabric for the structure. Companies rely on the ability to turn a profit for any structure project, as do the designers. The toll of raw materials (steel, cement, coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, lumber for grade-work, etc.) is constantly changing. If a structure could exist constructed using either material, the cheapest of the two will likely control. Another significant variable is the location of the projection. The closest steel fabrication facility may be much further from the construction site than the nearest concrete supplier. The high cost of energy and transportation will control the option of the material every bit well. All of these costs will be taken into consideration before the conceptual design of a construction projection is begun.^[9]

Combining steel and reinforced concrete [edit]

Structures consisting of both materials utilize the benefits of structural steel and reinforced concrete. This is already common do in reinforced concrete in that the steel reinforcement is used to provide steel's tensile strength capacity to a structural concrete fellow member. A commonly seen instance would be parking garages. Some parking garages are constructed using structural steel columns and reinforced concrete slabs. The concrete will be poured for the foundational footings, giving the parking garage a surface to exist built on. The steel columns will be continued to the slab by bolting and/or welding them to steel studs extruding from the surface of the poured physical slab. Pre-cast concrete beams may be delivered on site to be installed for the 2d floor, after which a concrete slab may be poured for the pavement expanse. This can exist done for multiple stories.^[fourteen] A parking garage of this type is just 1 possible example of many structures that may utilise both reinforced physical and structural steel.

A structural engineer understands that there are an infinite number of designs that will produce an efficient, safe, and affordable edifice. Information technology is the engineer's job to work aslope the owners, contractors, and all other parties involved to produce an ideal product that suits everyone'south needs.^[9] When choosing the structural materials for their structure, the engineer has many variables to consider, such every bit the cost, force/weight ratio, sustainability of the textile, constructability, etc.

Thermal properties [edit]

The backdrop of steel vary widely, depending on its alloying elements.

The austenizing temperature, the temperature where a steel transforms to an austenite crystal structure, for steel starts at 900 °C (ane,650 °F) for pure iron, then, every bit more carbon is added, the temperature falls to a minimum 724 °C (i,335 °F) for eutectic steel (steel with only .83% by weight of carbon in it). As two.1% carbon (by mass) is approached, the austenizing temperature climbs back upward, to i,130 °C (ii,070 °F). Similarly, the melting bespeak of steel changes based on the alloy.

The lowest temperature at which a plain carbon steel tin can begin to cook, its solidus, is 1,130 °C (two,070 °F). Steel never turns into a liquid beneath this temperature. Pure Iron ('Steel' with 0% Carbon) starts to melt at ane,492 °C (2,718 °F), and is completely liquid upon reaching 1,539 °C (ii,802 °F). Steel with 2.1% Carbon by weight begins melting at 1,130 °C (2,070 °F), and is completely molten upon reaching 1,315 °C (2,399 °F). 'Steel' with more than 2.ane% Carbon is no longer Steel, but is known equally Cast iron.^[xv]

Burn resistance [edit]

Metal deck and open up web steel joist receiving spray fireproofing plaster, made of polystyrene-leavened gypsum.

Steel loses strength when heated sufficiently. The critical temperature of a steel member is the temperature at which it cannot safely support its load.^[16] Edifice codes and structural engineering standard practice defines dissimilar critical temperatures depending on the structural element type, configuration, orientation, and loading characteristics. The critical temperature is often considered the temperature at which its yield stress has been reduced to lx% of the room temperature yield stress.^[17] In order to determine the burn down resistance rating of a steel member, accustomed calculations do can be used,^[eighteen] or a burn exam can exist performed, the critical temperature of which is set by the standard accepted to the Authorization Having Jurisdiction, such equally a edifice code. In Nihon, this is below 400 °C^{[ citation needed ]}. In China, Europe and N America (e.thou., ASTM E-119), this is approximately 1000–1300 °F^[19] (530-810 °C). The time it takes for the steel element that is beingness tested to reach the temperature set past the test standard determines the duration of the burn down-resistance rating. Estrus transfer to the steel can be slowed past the apply of fireproofing materials, thus limiting steel temperature. Common fireproofing methods for structural steel include intumescent, endothermic, and plaster coatings equally well as drywall, calcium silicate cladding, and mineral wool insulating blankets.^[twenty]

Physical building structures oftentimes meet lawmaking required fire-resistance ratings, as the physical thickness over the steel rebar provides sufficient fire resistance. However, concrete can be subject to spalling, particularly if it has an elevated moisture content. Although additional fireproofing is not oft applied to concrete building structures, it is sometimes used in traffic tunnels and locations where a hydrocarbon fuel burn is more likely, as flammable liquid fires provides more heat to the structural chemical element as compared to a fire involving ordinary combustibles during the same fire catamenia. Structural steel fireproofing materials include intumescent, endothermic and plaster coatings as well as drywall, calcium silicate cladding, and mineral or high temperature insulation wool blankets. Attention is given to connections, as the thermal expansion of structural elements can compromise fire-resistance rated assemblies.

Manufacturing [edit]

Cutting workpieces to length is usually done with a bandsaw.^{[ commendation needed ]}

A axle drill line (drill line) has long been considered an indispensable manner to drill holes and manufacturing plant slots into beams, channels and HSS elements. CNC beam drill lines are typically equipped with feed conveyors and position sensors to movement the element into position for drilling, plus probing capability to determine the precise location where the hole or slot is to be cut.

For cutting irregular openings or non-uniform ends on dimensional (non-plate) elements, a cut torch is typically used. Oxy-fuel torches are the most mutual technology and range from elementary hand-held torches to automated CNC coping machines that move the torch caput around the structural element in accord with cutting instructions programmed into the machine.

Fabricating flat plate is performed on a plate processing eye where the plate is laid apartment on a stationary 'table' and unlike cutting heads traverse the plate from a gantry-style arm or "bridge". The cutting heads can include a punch, drill or torch.

References [edit]

^ "Steel structure workshop". Retrieved ii March 2017.
^ "EN10219 S275JOH Carbon Steel Pipe". Prc HYSP Piping.
^ Manual of Steel Construction, 8th Edition, 2nd revised printing, American Institute of Steel Construction, 1987, ch 1 page one-v
^ The website of the British Constructional Steelwork Association Ltd. - SteelConstruction.org:CE-Marker.08/02/2011.
^ Guide to the CE Marking of Structural Steelwork, BCSA Publication No. 46/08. p.1.
^ Manufacturer Certification in Compliance with EN 1090, 09.08.2011
^ ^a ^b Levitt, M. (1982-03-01). Precast Concrete. ISBN978-0-85334-994-five.
^ Popescu, Calin. Estimating Building Costs.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^east ^f ^chiliad ^h ⁱ ^j Handbook of Structural Engineering. CRC Printing. 1997. ISBN978-0-8493-2674-5.
^ Zaharia, Raul (2009-05-06). Designing Steel Structures for Fire Rubber. ISBN978-0-415-54828-1.
^ Russ, Tom (2010-03-25). Sustainability and Design Ideals. ISBN978-1-4398-0854-2.
^ ^a ^b Chen, Wai-Fah (2005). Principles of Structural Design. ISBN978-0-8493-7235-3.
^ Armstrong, Robert (7 March 2014). "Properties and Prevention of Household Mold". Accented Steel. Retrieved 2 November 2014.
^ ^a ^b Taranath, Bungale (2009-12-fourteen). Reinforced Concrete Design of Tall Buildings. ISBN978-ane-4398-0480-iii.
^ http://www.msm.cam.air-conditioning.britain/phase-trans/images/FeC.gif^{[ blank URL image file ]}
^ "What Is Structural Steel? - Steel Fabrication Services". Steel Fabrication Services. 2016-04-21. Retrieved 2016-x-26 .
^ Industrial burn protection engineering, Robert Thousand. Zalosh, copyright 2003 pg.58
^ Zalosh, Pg. 70
^ Zalosh, Table 3.three
^ Best Practice Guidelines for Structural Fire Resistance Design of Concrete and Steel Buildings, NIST Technical Note 1681, L. T. Phan, J. L. Gross, and T. P. McAllister, 2010. (View report)

External links [edit]

Guide to the CE Marking of Structural Steelwork, BCSA Publication No. 46/08.
Encyclopedia for steel structure information
Structural Steel Handbook

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_steel

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